Abstract
The Qinling Mountains are the geographic boundary between northern and southern China. In our current study, we investigated the biodiversity of macrofungi in the Qinling Mountains of Shaanxi and discovered a new species, Psilocybe ningshanensis.
The phylogenetic tree shows its position in a group composed by P. hopii and P. mescaleroensis. They differ in some macro- and microscopic features, such as the presence or absence of an annulus or veil, the surface characteristics of the pileus, and the sizes and shapes of basidiospores and cheilocystidia. In addition, they are geographically distanced. P. ningshanensis was first discovered in Ningshan, China, whereas P. hopii and P. mescaleroensis were both found in the United States. In this article, we introduce the new species with illustrated description, ITS sequences, and comparisons with similar species.
References
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Borovi?ka, J., Oborník, M., St?íbrný, J., Noordeloos, M.E., Sánchez, L. & Gryndler, M. (2015) Phylogenetic and chemical studies in the potential psychotropic species complex of Psilocybe atrobrunnea with taxonomic and nomenclatural notes. Persoonia Molecular Phylogeny & Evolution of Fungi 34 (1): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3767/003158515X685283
Borovi?ka, J., Rockefeller, A. & Werner, P.G. (2012) Psilocybe allenii – A new bluing species from the Pacific Coast, USA. Czech Mycology 64 (2): 181–195.
Fricke, J., Lenz, C., Wick, J., Blei, F. & Hoffmeister, D. (2018) Production options for psilocybin: the making of the magic. Chemistry – A European Journal 25 (4): 897–903. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201802758
Gillet, C.C. (1878) Les hyménomycètes ou description de tous les champignons qui croissent en France. Ch. Thomas, Alençon, pp. 561–828.
Gotvaldová, K., Hájková, K., Borovi?ka, J., Jurok, R., Cihlá?ová, P. & Kucha?, M. (2021) Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis. Drug Testing and Analysis 13 (2): 439–446. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.2950
Guzmán, G. (1983) The genus Psilocybe. Beih. Nova Hedwigia 74. Cramer, Vaduz, 439 pp.
Guzmán, G. (1995) Supplement to the monograph of the genus Psilocybe. In: Petrini, O. & Horalc, E. (Eds.) Taxonomic monographs of Agaricales. Mycol, Berlin, pp. 91–141.
Guzmán, G. (2005) Species diversity of the genus Psilocybe (Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Strophariaceae) in the world mycobiota, with special attention to hallucinogenic properties. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 7 (1): 305–332. https://doi.org/10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v7.i12.280
Guzmán, G. (2009) The hallucinogenic mushrooms: diversity, traditions, use and abuse with special reference to the genus Psilocybe. In: Misha, J.K. & Deshmukh, S.K. (Eds.) Fungi from different environments. Science Publishers, Enfield(NH), pp. 256–277. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429061653-11
Guzmán, G. & Ott, J. (1976) Description and chemical analysis of a new species of hallucinogenic Psilocybe from the pacific northwest. Mycologia 68 (6): 1261–1267. https://doi.org/10.2307/3758762
Guzmán, G., Greene, J. & Ramírez-Guillén, F. (2010) A new for science neurotropic species of Psilocybe (Fr.) P. Kumm. (Agaricomycetideae) from the western United States. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 12 (2): 201–204. https://doi.org/10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v12.i2.110
Guzmán, G., Jacobs, J.Q., Ramírez-Guillén, F., Murrieta, D. & Gándara, E. (2005) The taxonomy of Psilocybe fagicola-complex. The Journal of Microbiology 43 (2): 158–165.
Guzmán, G., Ramírez Guillén, F., Hyde, K.D. & Karunarathna, S.C. (2012) Psilocybe s.s. in Thailand: Four new species and a review of previously recorded species. Mycotaxon 119 (1): 65–81. https://doi.org/10.5248/119.65
Guzmán, G., Walstad, L., Gándara, E. & Ramírez-Quillén, F. (2007) A new bluing species of Psilocybe, section Stuntzii, from New Mexico, U.S.A. Mycotaxon 99: 223–226.
Hofmann, A. (1978) History of the basic chemical investigations on the sacred mushrooms of Mexico. In: Ott, J. & Bigwood, J. (Eds.) Hallucinogenic mushrooms of north America. Madrona Publishers, Seattle, pp. 45–65.
Hujslová, M., Kubátová, A., Chudí?ková, M. & Kolarik, M. (2010) Diversity of fungal communities in saline and acidic soils in the Soos National Natural Reserve, Czech Republic. Mycological Progress 9 (1): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-009-0611-7
Krisai-Greilhuber, I., Kresitschnig, P., Ptz, H., Delev, E. & Barfuss, M.H.J. (2016) Psilocybe serbica var. bohemica – ein österreichischer Nachweis. Österreichische Zeitschrift für Pilzkunde 25: 201–208.
Kummer, P. (1871) Der Führer in die Pilzkunde. C. Luppe, Zerbst, 146 pp.
Li, Y.K., Yuan, Y. & Liang, J.F. (2014) Morphological and molecular evidence for a new species of Psilocybe from southern China. Mycotaxon 129 (2): 215–222. https://doi.org/10.5248/129.215
Ma, T., Feng, Y., Lin, X.F., Karunarathna, S.C., Ding, W.F. & Hyde, K.D. (2014) Psilocybe chuxiongensis, a new bluing species from subtropical China. Phytotaxa 156 (4): 211–220. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.156.4.3
Ma, T., Ling, X.F. & Hyde, K.D. (2016) Species of Psilocybe (Hymenogastraceae) from Yunnan, southwest China. Phytotaxa 284 (3): 181. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.284.3.3
Malysheva, E., Moreno, G., Villarreal, M., Malysheva, V. & Svetasheva, T. (2019) The secotioid genus Galeropsis (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota): a real taxonomic unit or ecological phenomenon? Mycological Progress 18 (6): 805–831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-019-01490-6
Mao, X.L. (2000) The macrofungi in China. Henan Science and Technology Press, Zhengzhou, 253 pp.
Matheny, P.B., Curtis, J.M., Hofstetter, V., Aime, M.C., Moncalvo, J.M., Ge, Z.W., Slot, J.C., Ammirati, J.F., Baroni, T.J., Bougher, N.L., Hughes, K.W., Lodge, D.J., Kerrigan, R.W., Seidl, M.T., Aanen, D.K., DeNitis, M., Daniele, G.M., Desjardin, D.E., Kropp, B.R., Norvell, L.L., Parker, A., Vellinga, E.C., Vilgalys, R. & Hibbett, D.S. (2006) Major clades of Agaricales: a multilocus phylogenetic overview. Mycologia 98 (6): 982–995. https://doi.org/10.3852/mycologia.98.6.982
Moncalvo, J.M., Vilgalys, R., Redhead, S.A., Johnson, J.E. & Miller, O.K. (2002) One hundred and seventeen clades of euagarics. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution 23 (3): 357–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00027-1
Nkadimeng, S.M., Nabatanzi, A., Steinmann, C.M.L. & Eloff, J.N. (2020) Phytochemical, cytotoxicity, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Psilocybe natalensis magic mushroom. Plants 9 (9): 1127. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9091127
Ramírez-Cruz, V., Guzmán, G. & Guzmán-Dávalos, L. (2013a) Type studies of Psilocybe sensu lato (Strophariaceae, Agaricales). Sydowia 65 (2): 277–319.
Ramírez-Cruz, V., Guzmán, G., Villalobos-Arámbula, A., Rodríguez, A., Matheny, P.B., Sánchez-García, M. & Guzmán-Dávalos, L. (2013b) Phylogenetic inference and trait evolution of the psychedelic mushroom genus Psilocybe sensu lato (Agaricales). Botany-botanique 91 (9): 573–591. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjb-2013-0070
Redhead, S.A., Moncalvo, J.-M., Vilgalys, R., Matheny, P.B., Guzmán-Dávalos, L. & Guzmán, G. (2007) (1757) Proposal to conserve the name Psilocybe (Basidiomycota) with a conserved type. Taxon 56 (1): 255–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/25065762
Sarwar, S., Aziz, T., Hanif, M., Ilyas, S. & Shaheen, S. (2019) Russula swatica: A new species of Russula based on molecular, light microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy analyses from Swat Valley of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Microscopy Research and Technique 82: 1700–1705. https://doi.org/10.1002/jemt.23335
Schoch, C.L., Robbertse, B., Robert, V., Vu, D. & Federhen, S. (2014) Finding needles in haystacks: linking scientific names, reference specimens and molecular data for Fungi. Database 2014: 336–341. https://doi.org/10.1093/database/bau061
Singer, R.S., A.H. (1958) Mycological investigations on teonanacatl, the Mexican hallucinogenic mushroom. Part II. A taxonomic monograph of Psilocybe, Section Caerulescentes. Mycologia 50 (2): 262–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.1958.12024726
Tamura, K., Peterson, D., Peterson, N., Stecher, G., Nei, M. & Kumar, S. (2011) MEGA5: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood, evolutionary distance,and maximum parsimony methods. Molecular Biology & Evolution 28 (10): 2731–2739. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msr121
Thorn, R.G., Reddy, C.A., Harris, D. & Paul, E.A. (1996) Isolation of saprophytic basidiomycetes from soil. Applied & Environmental Microbiology 62 (11): 4288–4292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0027-5107(96)00126-1
Tolgor, B. (2017) Strophariaceae. In: Wei, J.C., Xia, B.M., Hu, Z.Y., Zhuang, W.Y. & Wu, C.P. (Eds.) Flora fungorum sinicorum. Science Press, Beijing, pp. 149–164.
Vu, D., Groenewald, M., De, V.M., Gehrmann, T., Stielow, B., Eberhardt, U., Al-Hatmi, A., Groenewald, J.Z., Cardinali, G. & Houbraken, J. (2018) Large-scale generation and analysis of filamentous fungal DNA barcodes boosts coverage for kingdom fungi and reveals thresholds for fungal species and higher taxon delimitation. Studies in Mycology 92: 135–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.simyco.2018.05.001
Wang, Y.W. & Tzean, S.S. (2015) Dung-associated, potentially hallucinogenic mushrooms from Taiwan. Taiwania 60 (4): 160–168. https://doi.org/10.6165/tai.2015.60.160
Wasson, V.P. & Wasson, R.G. (1957) Mushrooms: Russia and history. Pantheon Books, New York.
White, J., Weinstein, S.A., Haro, D.L., Bedry, R., Schaper, A., Rumack, B.H. & Zilker, T. (2019) Mushroom poisoning: A proposed new clinical classification. Toxicon 157: 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.11.007
White, T.J., Bruns, T.D., Lee, S. & Taylor, J.W. (1990) Amplification and direct sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenies. In: Innis, M.A., Gelfand, D.H., Sninsky, J.J. & White, T. (Eds.) PCR Protocols: a guide to methods and applications. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 135?322. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1
Yang, Z.L., Matheny, P.B., Ge, Z.W., Slot, J.C. & Hibbett, D.S. (2005) New Asian species of the genus Anamika (euagarics, hebelomatoid clade) based on morphology and ribosomal DNA sequences. Mycological Research 109 (11): 1259–1267. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0953756205003758
Borovi?ka, J., Oborník, M., St?íbrný, J., Noordeloos, M.E., Sánchez, L. & Gryndler, M. (2015) Phylogenetic and chemical studies in the potential psychotropic species complex of Psilocybe atrobrunnea with taxonomic and nomenclatural notes. Persoonia Molecular Phylogeny & Evolution of Fungi 34 (1): 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3767/003158515X685283
Borovi?ka, J., Rockefeller, A. & Werner, P.G. (2012) Psilocybe allenii – A new bluing species from the Pacific Coast, USA. Czech Mycology 64 (2): 181–195.
Fricke, J., Lenz, C., Wick, J., Blei, F. & Hoffmeister, D. (2018) Production options for psilocybin: the making of the magic. Chemistry – A European Journal 25 (4): 897–903. https://doi.org/10.1002/chem.201802758
Gillet, C.C. (1878) Les hyménomycètes ou description de tous les champignons qui croissent en France. Ch. Thomas, Alençon, pp. 561–828.
Gotvaldová, K., Hájková, K., Borovi?ka, J., Jurok, R., Cihlá?ová, P. & Kucha?, M. (2021) Stability of psilocybin and its four analogs in the biomass of the psychotropic mushroom Psilocybe cubensis. Drug Testing and Analysis 13 (2): 439–446. https://doi.org/10.1002/dta.2950
Guzmán, G. (1983) The genus Psilocybe. Beih. Nova Hedwigia 74. Cramer, Vaduz, 439 pp.
Guzmán, G. (1995) Supplement to the monograph of the genus Psilocybe. In: Petrini, O. & Horalc, E. (Eds.) Taxonomic monographs of Agaricales. Mycol, Berlin, pp. 91–141.
Guzmán, G. (2005) Species diversity of the genus Psilocybe (Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Strophariaceae) in the world mycobiota, with special attention to hallucinogenic properties. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 7 (1): 305–332. https://doi.org/10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v7.i12.280
Guzmán, G. (2009) The hallucinogenic mushrooms: diversity, traditions, use and abuse with special reference to the genus Psilocybe. In: Misha, J.K. & Deshmukh, S.K. (Eds.) Fungi from different environments. Science Publishers, Enfield(NH), pp. 256–277. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429061653-11
Guzmán, G. & Ott, J. (1976) Description and chemical analysis of a new species of hallucinogenic Psilocybe from the pacific northwest. Mycologia 68 (6): 1261–1267. https://doi.org/10.2307/3758762
Guzmán, G., Greene, J. & Ramírez-Guillén, F. (2010) A new for science neurotropic species of Psilocybe (Fr.) P. Kumm. (Agaricomycetideae) from the western United States. International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms 12 (2): 201–204. https://doi.org/10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v12.i2.110
Guzmán, G., Jacobs, J.Q., Ramírez-Guillén, F., Murrieta, D. & Gándara, E. (2005) The taxonomy of Psilocybe fagicola-complex. The Journal of Microbiology 43 (2): 158–165.
Guzmán, G., Ramírez Guillén, F., Hyde, K.D. & Karunarathna, S.C. (2012) Psilocybe s.s. in Thailand: Four new species and a review of previously recorded species. Mycotaxon 119 (1): 65–81. https://doi.org/10.5248/119.65
Guzmán, G., Walstad, L., Gándara, E. & Ramírez-Quillén, F. (2007) A new bluing species of Psilocybe, section Stuntzii, from New Mexico, U.S.A. Mycotaxon 99: 223–226.
Hofmann, A. (1978) History of the basic chemical investigations on the sacred mushrooms of Mexico. In: Ott, J. & Bigwood, J. (Eds.) Hallucinogenic mushrooms of north America. Madrona Publishers, Seattle, pp. 45–65.
Hujslová, M., Kubátová, A., Chudí?ková, M. & Kolarik, M. (2010) Diversity of fungal communities in saline and acidic soils in the Soos National Natural Reserve, Czech Republic. Mycological Progress 9 (1): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-009-0611-7
Krisai-Greilhuber, I., Kresitschnig, P., Ptz, H., Delev, E. & Barfuss, M.H.J. (2016) Psilocybe serbica var. bohemica – ein österreichischer Nachweis. Österreichische Zeitschrift für Pilzkunde 25: 201–208.
Kummer, P. (1871) Der Führer in die Pilzkunde. C. Luppe, Zerbst, 146 pp.
Li, Y.K., Yuan, Y. & Liang, J.F. (2014) Morphological and molecular evidence for a new species of Psilocybe from southern China. Mycotaxon 129 (2): 215–222. https://doi.org/10.5248/129.215
Ma, T., Feng, Y., Lin, X.F., Karunarathna, S.C., Ding, W.F. & Hyde, K.D. (2014) Psilocybe chuxiongensis, a new bluing species from subtropical China. Phytotaxa 156 (4): 211–220. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.156.4.3
Ma, T., Ling, X.F. & Hyde, K.D. (2016) Species of Psilocybe (Hymenogastraceae) from Yunnan, southwest China. Phytotaxa 284 (3): 181. https://doi.org/10.11646/phytotaxa.284.3.3
Malysheva, E., Moreno, G., Villarreal, M., Malysheva, V. & Svetasheva, T. (2019) The secotioid genus Galeropsis (Agaricomycetes, Basidiomycota): a real taxonomic unit or ecological phenomenon? Mycological Progress 18 (6): 805–831. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11557-019-01490-6
Mao, X.L. (2000) The macrofungi in China. Henan Science and Technology Press, Zhengzhou, 253 pp.
Matheny, P.B., Curtis, J.M., Hofstetter, V., Aime, M.C., Moncalvo, J.M., Ge, Z.W., Slot, J.C., Ammirati, J.F., Baroni, T.J., Bougher, N.L., Hughes, K.W., Lodge, D.J., Kerrigan, R.W., Seidl, M.T., Aanen, D.K., DeNitis, M., Daniele, G.M., Desjardin, D.E., Kropp, B.R., Norvell, L.L., Parker, A., Vellinga, E.C., Vilgalys, R. & Hibbett, D.S. (2006) Major clades of Agaricales: a multilocus phylogenetic overview. Mycologia 98 (6): 982–995. https://doi.org/10.3852/mycologia.98.6.982
Moncalvo, J.M., Vilgalys, R., Redhead, S.A., Johnson, J.E. & Miller, O.K. (2002) One hundred and seventeen clades of euagarics. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution 23 (3): 357–400. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1055-7903(02)00027-1
Nkadimeng, S.M., Nabatanzi, A., Steinmann, C.M.L. & Eloff, J.N. (2020) Phytochemical, cytotoxicity, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Psilocybe natalensis magic mushroom. Plants 9 (9): 1127. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9091127
Ramírez-Cruz, V., Guzmán, G. & Guzmán-Dávalos, L. (2013a) Type studies of Psilocybe sensu lato (Strophariaceae, Agaricales). Sydowia 65 (2): 277–319.
Ramírez-Cruz, V., Guzmán, G., Villalobos-Arámbula, A., Rodríguez, A., Matheny, P.B., Sánchez-García, M. & Guzmán-Dávalos, L. (2013b) Phylogenetic inference and trait evolution of the psychedelic mushroom genus Psilocybe sensu lato (Agaricales). Botany-botanique 91 (9): 573–591. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjb-2013-0070
Redhead, S.A., Moncalvo, J.-M., Vilgalys, R., Matheny, P.B., Guzmán-Dávalos, L. & Guzmán, G. (2007) (1757) Proposal to conserve the name Psilocybe (Basidiomycota) with a conserved type. Taxon 56 (1): 255–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/25065762
Sarwar, S., Aziz, T., Hanif, M., Ilyas, S. & Shaheen, S. (2019) Russula swatica: A new species of Russula based on molecular, light microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy analyses from Swat Valley of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. Microscopy Research and Technique 82: 1700–1705. https://doi.org/10.1002/jemt.23335
Schoch, C.L., Robbertse, B., Robert, V., Vu, D. & Federhen, S. (2014) Finding needles in haystacks: linking scientific names, reference specimens and molecular data for Fungi. Database 2014: 336–341. https://doi.org/10.1093/database/bau061
Singer, R.S., A.H. (1958) Mycological investigations on teonanacatl, the Mexican hallucinogenic mushroom. Part II. A taxonomic monograph of Psilocybe, Section Caerulescentes. Mycologia 50 (2): 262–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/00275514.1958.12024726
Tamura, K., Peterson, D., Peterson, N., Stecher, G., Nei, M. & Kumar, S. (2011) MEGA5: molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood, evolutionary distance,and maximum parsimony methods. Molecular Biology & Evolution 28 (10): 2731–2739. https://doi.org/10.1093/molbev/msr121
Thorn, R.G., Reddy, C.A., Harris, D. & Paul, E.A. (1996) Isolation of saprophytic basidiomycetes from soil. Applied & Environmental Microbiology 62 (11): 4288–4292. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0027-5107(96)00126-1
Tolgor, B. (2017) Strophariaceae. In: Wei, J.C., Xia, B.M., Hu, Z.Y., Zhuang, W.Y. & Wu, C.P. (Eds.) Flora fungorum sinicorum. Science Press, Beijing, pp. 149–164.
Vu, D., Groenewald, M., De, V.M., Gehrmann, T., Stielow, B., Eberhardt, U., Al-Hatmi, A., Groenewald, J.Z., Cardinali, G. & Houbraken, J. (2018) Large-scale generation and analysis of filamentous fungal DNA barcodes boosts coverage for kingdom fungi and reveals thresholds for fungal species and higher taxon delimitation. Studies in Mycology 92: 135–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.simyco.2018.05.001
Wang, Y.W. & Tzean, S.S. (2015) Dung-associated, potentially hallucinogenic mushrooms from Taiwan. Taiwania 60 (4): 160–168. https://doi.org/10.6165/tai.2015.60.160
Wasson, V.P. & Wasson, R.G. (1957) Mushrooms: Russia and history. Pantheon Books, New York.
White, J., Weinstein, S.A., Haro, D.L., Bedry, R., Schaper, A., Rumack, B.H. & Zilker, T. (2019) Mushroom poisoning: A proposed new clinical classification. Toxicon 157: 53–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.11.007
White, T.J., Bruns, T.D., Lee, S. & Taylor, J.W. (1990) Amplification and direct sequencing of fungal ribosomal RNA genes for phylogenies. In: Innis, M.A., Gelfand, D.H., Sninsky, J.J. & White, T. (Eds.) PCR Protocols: a guide to methods and applications. Academic Press, San Diego, pp. 135?322. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-372180-8.50042-1
Yang, Z.L., Matheny, P.B., Ge, Z.W., Slot, J.C. & Hibbett, D.S. (2005) New Asian species of the genus Anamika (euagarics, hebelomatoid clade) based on morphology and ribosomal DNA sequences. Mycological Research 109 (11): 1259–1267. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0953756205003758